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Okumaya devam et...
← Previous revision | Revision as of 05:01, 27 April 2024 |
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| The stratigraphic sequence at Öküzini Cave spans a period beginning approximately 18,000 years ago with the earliest occupations dating back to the Final [[Paleolithic era]], followed by transitions into the [[Neolithic era]], with evidence of burials found towards the upper layers of the sequence, indicating a continuation of human activity over time. The presence of hearth stones, ash deposits, lithic material, and faunal debris provides evidence of frequent human occupancy and that the cave served as a seasonal campsite with repeated use across different periods.<ref name=":2" /> | The stratigraphic sequence at Öküzini Cave spans a period beginning approximately 18,000 years ago with the earliest occupations dating back to the Final [[Paleolithic era]], followed by transitions into the [[Neolithic era]], with evidence of burials found towards the upper layers of the sequence, indicating a continuation of human activity over time. The presence of hearth stones, ash deposits, lithic material, and faunal debris provides evidence of frequent human occupancy and that the cave served as a seasonal campsite with repeated use across different periods.<ref name=":2" /> |
| {{Heading|Archaeological Research}} | |
| === Sediment Analysis === | == Archaeological research == |
| === Sediment analysis === | |
| Under the Tübingen Institut für Urgeschichte in 1989, research group "Bioprofil Öküzini" conducted analyses at Okuzini Cave, providing insights into the cave's composition and stratigraphic sequence. Soil samples were excavated and collected using flotation methods, overseen by J. Moser, A. Pawlik, D. Bonjean, and Ü. Özirmak. The recovered artifacts included over 15,000 flakes, 129 cores, about 500 retouched tools, and 27 bone tools. Led by D. Burger, the sediment analysis revealed that the lowermost sediments primarily consisted of soil material from the surrounding area, with limestone fragments dispersed throughout, while the upper layers exhibited a more complex, heterogeneous mixture of limestone pieces and brown sediment. The upper layers are predominantly composed of grey limnic chalk, which was potentially introduced into the cave through human activity.<ref name=":1" /> | Under the Tübingen Institut für Urgeschichte in 1989, research group "Bioprofil Öküzini" conducted analyses at Okuzini Cave, providing insights into the cave's composition and stratigraphic sequence. Soil samples were excavated and collected using flotation methods, overseen by J. Moser, A. Pawlik, D. Bonjean, and Ü. Özirmak. The recovered artifacts included over 15,000 flakes, 129 cores, about 500 retouched tools, and 27 bone tools. Led by D. Burger, the sediment analysis revealed that the lowermost sediments primarily consisted of soil material from the surrounding area, with limestone fragments dispersed throughout, while the upper layers exhibited a more complex, heterogeneous mixture of limestone pieces and brown sediment. The upper layers are predominantly composed of grey limnic chalk, which was potentially introduced into the cave through human activity.<ref name=":1" /> |
| [[Radiocarbon]] dating of the bone and charcoal samples within the sedimentary sequence yielded dates spanning from approximately 18,200 BC to 6840–6640 BC, supporting the framework established through sediment analysis.<ref name=":2" /> | [[Radiocarbon]] dating of the bone and charcoal samples within the sedimentary sequence yielded dates spanning from approximately 18,200 BC to 6840–6640 BC, supporting the framework established through sediment analysis.<ref name=":2" /> |
| ==== Material Cultural Analysis ==== | ==== Material cultural analysis ==== |
| Further investigations in 1991 at the Antalya Museum classified the tool assemblages into four [[technocomplex]]es, offering chronological markers for interpreting the [[archaeological sequence]] at Öküzini Cave: | Further investigations in 1991 at the Antalya Museum classified the tool assemblages into four [[technocomplex]]es, offering chronological markers for interpreting the [[archaeological sequence]] at Öküzini Cave: |
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| An analysis led by François-Xavier Le Bourdonnec and Gérard Poupeau examining 56 obsidian artifacts, consisting of small non-cortical flakes obtained during water-sieving processes, was conducted using particle-induced X-ray emission (PIXE) techniques. Results from the analysis of the obsidian artifacts showed combatibility with southern [[Cappadocian Greeks|Cappadocian]] sources from the East [[Göllü Dağ]] lava dome and the Nenezi Dağ mountain.<ref name=":0" /> | An analysis led by François-Xavier Le Bourdonnec and Gérard Poupeau examining 56 obsidian artifacts, consisting of small non-cortical flakes obtained during water-sieving processes, was conducted using particle-induced X-ray emission (PIXE) techniques. Results from the analysis of the obsidian artifacts showed combatibility with southern [[Cappadocian Greeks|Cappadocian]] sources from the East [[Göllü Dağ]] lava dome and the Nenezi Dağ mountain.<ref name=":0" /> |
| === Pollen Analysis === | === Pollen analysis === |
| Conducted by B. Urban and B. Albrecht, the pollen analysis at Öküzini Cave revealed selective preservation of certain plant remains. Remnants of fern spores, heather plants, and charred organic substances were observed in later pollen samples, shedding light on the floral composition in the vicinity of the cave, despite challenges such as poor preservation and low pollen counts preventing the prediction of the climate history.<ref name=":1" /> | Conducted by B. Urban and B. Albrecht, the pollen analysis at Öküzini Cave revealed selective preservation of certain plant remains. Remnants of fern spores, heather plants, and charred organic substances were observed in later pollen samples, shedding light on the floral composition in the vicinity of the cave, despite challenges such as poor preservation and low pollen counts preventing the prediction of the climate history.<ref name=":1" /> |
| === Fauna Analysis === | === Fauna analysis === |
| Led by H. Berke and H.P. Uerpmann for macrofauna, W. Rähle for [[malacology]], G. Storch for microfauna, and W. Torke for fish, analysis of fauna provide insights into the animal exploitation strategies and ecological context of Öküzini Cave. The abundance of faunal remains recovered at the site, totaling approximately 20,000 bones and bone fragments, exhibited the importance of animal resources in the diets of the past inhabitants. Findings revealed the presence of diverse fauna, including fallow deer, deer, wild pigs, and wild cattle, indicative of intensive hunting practices. Bird bone remains discovered within specific layers of the cave offer insights into the late [[Pleistocene]] [[biotope]], given the unique ecological conditions of the site, due to the nearby karst springs which can foster habitats for waterfowl.<ref name=":1" /> | Led by H. Berke and H.P. Uerpmann for macrofauna, W. Rähle for [[malacology]], G. Storch for microfauna, and W. Torke for fish, analysis of fauna provide insights into the animal exploitation strategies and ecological context of Öküzini Cave. The abundance of faunal remains recovered at the site, totaling approximately 20,000 bones and bone fragments, exhibited the importance of animal resources in the diets of the past inhabitants. Findings revealed the presence of diverse fauna, including fallow deer, deer, wild pigs, and wild cattle, indicative of intensive hunting practices. Bird bone remains discovered within specific layers of the cave offer insights into the late [[Pleistocene]] [[biotope]], given the unique ecological conditions of the site, due to the nearby karst springs which can foster habitats for waterfowl.<ref name=":1" /> |
| While the analysis of terrestrial [[Mollusca|mollusk]] fauna does not offer direct insights into environmental changes, it highlights a significant increase in freshwater mollusks starting from the Holocene, suggesting a transition from dryer to more humid conditions.<ref name=":1" /> | While the analysis of terrestrial [[Mollusca|mollusk]] fauna does not offer direct insights into environmental changes, it highlights a significant increase in freshwater mollusks starting from the Holocene, suggesting a transition from dryer to more humid conditions.<ref name=":1" /> |
| == Human Activity == | == Human activity == |
| === Dietary Practices === | === Dietary practices === |
| Processing deposits using bucket [[Flotation (archaeology)|flotation]] yielded more than 400 mineralized macro-remains and 2522 carbonized plant macro-remains. Despite poor preservation and fragmented remains, analysis identified at least 18 taxa and categories of plant remains, primarily carbonized. The recovered plant remains, such as wild almonds ([[Amygdalus amara|Amygdalus]]), [[pistacia]] species, acorns, ceitis drupes, and edible fruits from various species like [[Crataegus]], [[Pyrus]], Rosa, and [[Vitis]], reveal the diverse dietary practices among the Epipalaeolithic populations. Since these plants belonged to small to medium-sized [[phanerophyte]]s or woody climbers, they were easy-to-collect and were a predictable resource with high concentrations of fibers, vitamins, minerals, and [[phytochemical]]s. These plant resources supplemented the diet of the cave inhabitants, which was mainly based on hunting animals like ovicaprines, fallow deer, roe deer, red deer, wild boar, birds, reptiles, and fish. Recovered artifacts, such as woven material imprints, oval pebbles, bone harvesting knives, and grinding stones, provide evidence of plant gathering and processing activities.<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last=Martinoli |first=Danièle |date=2004 |title=Food plant use, temporal changes and site seasonally at Epipalaeolithic Öküzini and Karain B caves, southwest Anatolia, Turkey |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/41496700 |journal=Paléorient |volume=30 |issue=2 |pages=61–80 |issn=0153-9345}}</ref> | Processing deposits using bucket [[Flotation (archaeology)|flotation]] yielded more than 400 mineralized macro-remains and 2522 carbonized plant macro-remains. Despite poor preservation and fragmented remains, analysis identified at least 18 taxa and categories of plant remains, primarily carbonized. The recovered plant remains, such as wild almonds ([[Amygdalus amara|Amygdalus]]), [[pistacia]] species, acorns, ceitis drupes, and edible fruits from various species like [[Crataegus]], [[Pyrus]], Rosa, and [[Vitis]], reveal the diverse dietary practices among the Epipalaeolithic populations. Since these plants belonged to small to medium-sized [[phanerophyte]]s or woody climbers, they were easy-to-collect and were a predictable resource with high concentrations of fibers, vitamins, minerals, and [[phytochemical]]s. These plant resources supplemented the diet of the cave inhabitants, which was mainly based on hunting animals like ovicaprines, fallow deer, roe deer, red deer, wild boar, birds, reptiles, and fish. Recovered artifacts, such as woven material imprints, oval pebbles, bone harvesting knives, and grinding stones, provide evidence of plant gathering and processing activities.<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last=Martinoli |first=Danièle |date=2004 |title=Food plant use, temporal changes and site seasonally at Epipalaeolithic Öküzini and Karain B caves, southwest Anatolia, Turkey |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/41496700 |journal=Paléorient |volume=30 |issue=2 |pages=61–80 |issn=0153-9345}}</ref> |
| === Seasonality and Settlement Patterns === | === Seasonality and settlement patterns === |
| Analysis of ungulate remains from the Epipalaeolithic period suggests that hunting activities predominantly occurred during the early summer, with specific evidence indicating hunting of juvenile [[Ovicaprid|ovicaprines]] and [[fallow deer]] from late spring to early autumn. The availability of plant resources also indicates the primary periods of occupation at Öküzini Cave in the late summer and autumn, which coincided with the ripening of fruits and nuts that have been recovered at the site. Occupation may have also extended into winter and spring when underground plants were edible.<ref name=":3" /> | Analysis of ungulate remains from the Epipalaeolithic period suggests that hunting activities predominantly occurred during the early summer, with specific evidence indicating hunting of juvenile [[Ovicaprid|ovicaprines]] and [[fallow deer]] from late spring to early autumn. The availability of plant resources also indicates the primary periods of occupation at Öküzini Cave in the late summer and autumn, which coincided with the ripening of fruits and nuts that have been recovered at the site. Occupation may have also extended into winter and spring when underground plants were edible.<ref name=":3" /> |
Okumaya devam et...