Toba eruption
Okumaya devam et...
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| The most recent estimate of eruptive volume is {{cvt|3800|km3}} [[dense-rock equivalent]] (DRE), of which {{cvt|1800|km3}} was deposited as ash fall and {{cvt|2000|km3}} as [[ignimbrite]], making this eruption the largest during the [[Quaternary]] period.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal |last1=Kutterolf |first1=S. |last2=Schindlbeck-Belo |first2=J.C. |last3=Müller |first3=F. |last4=Pank |first4=K. |last5=Lee |first5=H.-Y. |last6=Wang |first6=K.-L. |last7=Schmitt |first7=A.K. |date=2023 |title=Revisiting the occurrence and distribution of Indian Ocean Tephra: Quaternary marine Toba ash inventory |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0377027323001361 |journal=Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research |language=en |volume=441 |pages=107879 |doi=10.1016/j.jvolgeores.2023.107879}}</ref> Previous volume estimates have ranged from {{cvt|2000|km3}}<ref name="Toba1978" /> to {{cvt|6000|km3}}.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Self |first1=S. |last2=Gouramanis |first2=C. |last3=Storey |first3=M. |date=2019-12-01 |title=The Young Toba Tuff (73.9 ka) Magma Body – True Size and the most Extensive and Voluminous Ignimbrite Yet Known? |url=https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2019AGUFM.V51H0141S |journal=AGU Fall Meeting Abstracts |volume=2019 |pages=V51H–0141 |bibcode=2019AGUFM.V51H0141S}}</ref> Inside the caldera, the maximum thickness of [[Pyroclastic flow|pyroclastic flows]] is over {{cvt|600|m}}.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Chesner |first1=Craig A. |last2=Rose |first2=William I. |date=1991-06-01 |title=Stratigraphy of the Toba Tuffs and the evolution of the Toba Caldera Complex, Sumatra, Indonesia |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00280226 |journal=Bulletin of Volcanology |language=en |volume=53 |issue=5 |pages=343–356 |doi=10.1007/BF00280226 |issn=1432-0819}}</ref> The outflow sheet originally covered an area of {{cvt|20000-30000|km2}} with thickness nearly {{cvt|100|m}}, likely reaching into the [[Indian Ocean]] and the [[Strait of Malacca|Straits of Malacca]].<ref name=":10">{{Cite journal |last=Chesner |first=Craig A. |date=2012 |title=The Toba Caldera Complex |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2011.09.025 |journal=Quaternary International |volume=258 |pages=5–18 |doi=10.1016/j.quaint.2011.09.025 |issn=1040-6182}}</ref> The air-fall of this eruption blanketed [[Indian subcontinent]] in a layer of {{cvt|5|cm}} ash,<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Petraglia |first1=Michael D. |last2=Ditchfield |first2=Peter |last3=Jones |first3=Sacha |last4=Korisettar |first4=Ravi |last5=Pal |first5=J.N. |date=2012 |title=The Toba volcanic super-eruption, environmental change, and hominin occupation history in India over the last 140,000 years |url=https://doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2011.07.042 |journal=Quaternary International |volume=258 |pages=119–134 |doi=10.1016/j.quaint.2011.07.042 |issn=1040-6182}}</ref> [[Arabian Sea]] in {{cvt|1|mm}},<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Von Rad |first1=Ulrich |last2=Burgath |first2=Klaus-Peter |last3=Pervaz |first3=Muhammad |last4=Schulz |first4=Hartmut |date=2002 |title=Discovery of the Toba Ash ( c. 70 ka) in a high-resolution core recovering millennial monsoonal variability off Pakistan |url=https://www.lyellcollection.org/doi/10.1144/GSL.SP.2002.195.01.25 |journal=Geological Society, London, Special Publications |language=en |volume=195 |issue=1 |pages=445–461 |doi=10.1144/GSL.SP.2002.195.01.25 |issn=0305-8719}}</ref> [[South China Sea]] in {{cvt|3.5|cm}},<ref name=":11">{{Cite journal |last1=Bühring |first1=Christian |last2=Sarnthein |first2=Michael |date=2000 |title=Toba ash layers in the South China Sea: Evidence of contrasting wind directions during eruption ca. 74 ka: Comment and Reply |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1130/0091-7613(2000) |journal=Geology |volume=28 |issue=11 |pages=1056 |doi=10.1130/0091-7613(2000)28<1056:talits>2.0.co;2 |issn=0091-7613}}</ref> and Central Indian Ocean Basin in {{cvt|10|cm}}.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Pattan |first1=J. N |last2=Shane |first2=Phil |last3=Banakar |first3=V. K |date=1999-03-01 |title=New occurrence of Youngest Toba Tuff in abyssal sediments of the Central Indian Basin |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0025322798001601 |journal=Marine Geology |volume=155 |issue=3 |pages=243–248 |doi=10.1016/S0025-3227(98)00160-1 |issn=0025-3227}}</ref> Its horizon of ashfall covered an area of more than {{cvt|38000000|km2}} in {{cvt|1|cm}} or more thickness.<ref name=":5" /> In [[Sub-Saharan Africa]], microscopic glass shards from this eruption are also discovered on the south coast of [[South Africa]],<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Smith |first1=Eugene I. |last2=Jacobs |first2=Zenobia |author-link2=Zenobia Jacobs |last3=Johnsen |first3=Racheal |last4=Ren |first4=Minghua |last5=Fisher |first5=Erich C. |last6=Oestmo |first6=Simen |last7=Wilkins |first7=Jayne |last8=Harris |first8=Jacob A. |last9=Karkanas |first9=Panagiotis |last10=Fitch |first10=Shelby |last11=Ciravolo |first11=Amber |last12=Keenan |first12=Deborah |last13=Cleghorn |first13=Naomi |last14=Lane |first14=Christine S. |last15=Matthews |first15=Thalassa |date=2018 |title=Humans thrived in South Africa through the Toba eruption about 74,000 years ago |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/nature25967 |journal=Nature |language=en |volume=555 |issue=7697 |pages=511–515 |doi=10.1038/nature25967 |issn=1476-4687}}</ref> in the [[lowlands]] of northwest [[Ethiopia]],<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Kappelman |first1=John |last2=Todd |first2=Lawrence C. |last3=Davis |first3=Christopher A. |last4=Cerling |first4=Thure E. |last5=Feseha |first5=Mulugeta |last6=Getahun |first6=Abebe |last7=Johnsen |first7=Racheal |last8=Kay |first8=Marvin |last9=Kocurek |first9=Gary A. |last10=Nachman |first10=Brett A. |last11=Negash |first11=Agazi |last12=Negash |first12=Tewabe |last13=O’Brien |first13=Kaedan |last14=Pante |first14=Michael |last15=Ren |first15=Minghua |date=2024 |title=Adaptive foraging behaviours in the Horn of Africa during Toba supereruption |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-024-07208-3 |journal=Nature |language=en |volume=628 |issue=8007 |pages=365–372 |doi=10.1038/s41586-024-07208-3 |pmid=38509364 |issn=1476-4687}}</ref> in [[Lake Malawi]],<ref name=":3">{{cite journal |last1=Lane |first1=C. S. |last2=Chorn |first2=B. T. |last3=Johnson |first3=T. C. |date=2013 |title=Ash from the Toba supereruption in Lake Malawi shows no volcanic winter in East Africa at 75 ka |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |volume=110 |issue=20 |pages=8025–8029 |bibcode=2013PNAS..110.8025L |doi=10.1073/pnas.1301474110 |pmc=3657767 |pmid=23630269 |doi-access=free}}</ref> and in [[Lake Chala]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Baxter |first1=A. J. |last2=Verschuren |first2=D. |last3=Peterse |first3=F. |last4=Miralles |first4=D. G. |last5=Martin-Jones |first5=C. M. |last6=Maitituerdi |first6=A. |last7=Van der Meeren |first7=T. |last8=Van Daele |first8=M. |last9=Lane |first9=C. S. |last10=Haug |first10=G. H. |last11=Olago |first11=D. O. |last12=Sinninghe Damsté |first12=J. S. |date=2023 |title=Reversed Holocene temperature–moisture relationship in the Horn of Africa |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-023-06272-5 |journal=Nature |language=en |volume=620 |issue=7973 |pages=336–343 |doi=10.1038/s41586-023-06272-5 |pmid=37558848 |issn=1476-4687|hdl=1854/LU-01HF6GN7WZQ65R3C82NK0HC57E |hdl-access=free }}</ref> | The most recent estimate of eruptive volume is {{cvt|3800|km3}} [[dense-rock equivalent]] (DRE), of which {{cvt|1800|km3}} was deposited as ash fall and {{cvt|2000|km3}} as [[ignimbrite]], making this eruption the largest during the [[Quaternary]] period.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal |last1=Kutterolf |first1=S. |last2=Schindlbeck-Belo |first2=J.C. |last3=Müller |first3=F. |last4=Pank |first4=K. |last5=Lee |first5=H.-Y. |last6=Wang |first6=K.-L. |last7=Schmitt |first7=A.K. |date=2023 |title=Revisiting the occurrence and distribution of Indian Ocean Tephra: Quaternary marine Toba ash inventory |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0377027323001361 |journal=Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research |language=en |volume=441 |pages=107879 |doi=10.1016/j.jvolgeores.2023.107879}}</ref> Previous volume estimates have ranged from {{cvt|2000|km3}}<ref name="Toba1978" /> to {{cvt|6000|km3}}.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Self |first1=S. |last2=Gouramanis |first2=C. |last3=Storey |first3=M. |date=2019-12-01 |title=The Young Toba Tuff (73.9 ka) Magma Body – True Size and the most Extensive and Voluminous Ignimbrite Yet Known? |url=https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2019AGUFM.V51H0141S |journal=AGU Fall Meeting Abstracts |volume=2019 |pages=V51H–0141 |bibcode=2019AGUFM.V51H0141S}}</ref> Inside the caldera, the maximum thickness of [[Pyroclastic flow|pyroclastic flows]] is over {{cvt|600|m}}.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Chesner |first1=Craig A. |last2=Rose |first2=William I. |date=1991-06-01 |title=Stratigraphy of the Toba Tuffs and the evolution of the Toba Caldera Complex, Sumatra, Indonesia |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00280226 |journal=Bulletin of Volcanology |language=en |volume=53 |issue=5 |pages=343–356 |doi=10.1007/BF00280226 |issn=1432-0819}}</ref> The outflow sheet originally covered an area of {{cvt|20000-30000|km2}} with thickness nearly {{cvt|100|m}}, likely reaching into the [[Indian Ocean]] and the [[Strait of Malacca|Straits of Malacca]].<ref name=":10">{{Cite journal |last=Chesner |first=Craig A. |date=2012 |title=The Toba Caldera Complex |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2011.09.025 |journal=Quaternary International |volume=258 |pages=5–18 |doi=10.1016/j.quaint.2011.09.025 |issn=1040-6182}}</ref> The air-fall of this eruption blanketed [[Indian subcontinent]] in a layer of {{cvt|5|cm}} ash,<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Petraglia |first1=Michael D. |last2=Ditchfield |first2=Peter |last3=Jones |first3=Sacha |last4=Korisettar |first4=Ravi |last5=Pal |first5=J.N. |date=2012 |title=The Toba volcanic super-eruption, environmental change, and hominin occupation history in India over the last 140,000 years |url=https://doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2011.07.042 |journal=Quaternary International |volume=258 |pages=119–134 |doi=10.1016/j.quaint.2011.07.042 |issn=1040-6182}}</ref> [[Arabian Sea]] in {{cvt|1|mm}},<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Von Rad |first1=Ulrich |last2=Burgath |first2=Klaus-Peter |last3=Pervaz |first3=Muhammad |last4=Schulz |first4=Hartmut |date=2002 |title=Discovery of the Toba Ash ( c. 70 ka) in a high-resolution core recovering millennial monsoonal variability off Pakistan |url=https://www.lyellcollection.org/doi/10.1144/GSL.SP.2002.195.01.25 |journal=Geological Society, London, Special Publications |language=en |volume=195 |issue=1 |pages=445–461 |doi=10.1144/GSL.SP.2002.195.01.25 |issn=0305-8719}}</ref> [[South China Sea]] in {{cvt|3.5|cm}},<ref name=":11">{{Cite journal |last1=Bühring |first1=Christian |last2=Sarnthein |first2=Michael |date=2000 |title=Toba ash layers in the South China Sea: Evidence of contrasting wind directions during eruption ca. 74 ka: Comment and Reply |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1130/0091-7613(2000) |journal=Geology |volume=28 |issue=11 |pages=1056 |doi=10.1130/0091-7613(2000)28<1056:talits>2.0.co;2 |issn=0091-7613}}</ref> and Central Indian Ocean Basin in {{cvt|10|cm}}.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Pattan |first1=J. N |last2=Shane |first2=Phil |last3=Banakar |first3=V. K |date=1999-03-01 |title=New occurrence of Youngest Toba Tuff in abyssal sediments of the Central Indian Basin |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0025322798001601 |journal=Marine Geology |volume=155 |issue=3 |pages=243–248 |doi=10.1016/S0025-3227(98)00160-1 |issn=0025-3227}}</ref> Its horizon of ashfall covered an area of more than {{cvt|38000000|km2}} in {{cvt|1|cm}} or more thickness.<ref name=":5" /> In [[Sub-Saharan Africa]], microscopic glass shards from this eruption are also discovered on the south coast of [[South Africa]],<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Smith |first1=Eugene I. |last2=Jacobs |first2=Zenobia |author-link2=Zenobia Jacobs |last3=Johnsen |first3=Racheal |last4=Ren |first4=Minghua |last5=Fisher |first5=Erich C. |last6=Oestmo |first6=Simen |last7=Wilkins |first7=Jayne |last8=Harris |first8=Jacob A. |last9=Karkanas |first9=Panagiotis |last10=Fitch |first10=Shelby |last11=Ciravolo |first11=Amber |last12=Keenan |first12=Deborah |last13=Cleghorn |first13=Naomi |last14=Lane |first14=Christine S. |last15=Matthews |first15=Thalassa |date=2018 |title=Humans thrived in South Africa through the Toba eruption about 74,000 years ago |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/nature25967 |journal=Nature |language=en |volume=555 |issue=7697 |pages=511–515 |doi=10.1038/nature25967 |issn=1476-4687}}</ref> in the [[lowlands]] of northwest [[Ethiopia]],<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Kappelman |first1=John |last2=Todd |first2=Lawrence C. |last3=Davis |first3=Christopher A. |last4=Cerling |first4=Thure E. |last5=Feseha |first5=Mulugeta |last6=Getahun |first6=Abebe |last7=Johnsen |first7=Racheal |last8=Kay |first8=Marvin |last9=Kocurek |first9=Gary A. |last10=Nachman |first10=Brett A. |last11=Negash |first11=Agazi |last12=Negash |first12=Tewabe |last13=O’Brien |first13=Kaedan |last14=Pante |first14=Michael |last15=Ren |first15=Minghua |date=2024 |title=Adaptive foraging behaviours in the Horn of Africa during Toba supereruption |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-024-07208-3 |journal=Nature |language=en |volume=628 |issue=8007 |pages=365–372 |doi=10.1038/s41586-024-07208-3 |pmid=38509364 |issn=1476-4687}}</ref> in [[Lake Malawi]],<ref name=":3">{{cite journal |last1=Lane |first1=C. S. |last2=Chorn |first2=B. T. |last3=Johnson |first3=T. C. |date=2013 |title=Ash from the Toba supereruption in Lake Malawi shows no volcanic winter in East Africa at 75 ka |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |volume=110 |issue=20 |pages=8025–8029 |bibcode=2013PNAS..110.8025L |doi=10.1073/pnas.1301474110 |pmc=3657767 |pmid=23630269 |doi-access=free}}</ref> and in [[Lake Chala]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Baxter |first1=A. J. |last2=Verschuren |first2=D. |last3=Peterse |first3=F. |last4=Miralles |first4=D. G. |last5=Martin-Jones |first5=C. M. |last6=Maitituerdi |first6=A. |last7=Van der Meeren |first7=T. |last8=Van Daele |first8=M. |last9=Lane |first9=C. S. |last10=Haug |first10=G. H. |last11=Olago |first11=D. O. |last12=Sinninghe Damsté |first12=J. S. |date=2023 |title=Reversed Holocene temperature–moisture relationship in the Horn of Africa |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-023-06272-5 |journal=Nature |language=en |volume=620 |issue=7973 |pages=336–343 |doi=10.1038/s41586-023-06272-5 |pmid=37558848 |issn=1476-4687|hdl=1854/LU-01HF6GN7WZQ65R3C82NK0HC57E |hdl-access=free }}</ref> |
| The most recent two high-precision [[argon–argon dating|argon–argon datings]] dated the eruption to 73,880 ± 320<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Storey |first1=Michael |last2=Roberts |first2=Richard G. |last3=Saidin |first3=Mokhtar |date=2012-11-13 |title=Astronomically calibrated 40 Ar/ 39 Ar age for the Toba supereruption and global synchronization of late Quaternary records |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |language=en |volume=109 |issue=46 |pages=18684–18688 |bibcode=2012PNAS..10918684S |doi=10.1073/pnas.1208178109 |issn=0027-8424 |pmc=3503200 |pmid=23112159 |doi-access=free}}</ref> and 73,700 ± 300 years ago.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Channell |first1=J.E.T. |last2=Hodell |first2=D.A. |date=2017 |title=High-precision 40Ar/39Ar dating of Pleistocene tuffs and temporal anchoring of the Matuyama-Brunhes boundary |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.quageo.2017.08.002 |journal=Quaternary Geochronology |volume=42 |pages=56–59 |doi=10.1016/j.quageo.2017.08.002 |issn=1871-1014}}</ref> Five distinct magma bodies were activated within a few centuries before the eruption.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Pearce |first1=Nicholas J.G. |last2=Westgate |first2=John A. |last3=Gualda |first3=Guilherme A.R. |last4=Gatti |first4=Emma |last5=Muhammad |first5=Ros F. |date=2019-10-14 |title=Tephra glass chemistry provides storage and discharge details of five magma reservoirs which fed the 75 ka Youngest Toba Tuff eruption, northern Sumatra |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/jqs.3149 |journal=Journal of Quaternary Science |volume=35 |issue=1–2 |pages=256–271 |doi=10.1002/jqs.3149 |issn=0267-8179|hdl=2160/dba3b012-8369-4dbb-8a89-1102f11e92c3 |hdl-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Lubbers |first1=Jordan |last2=Kent |first2=Adam J. R. |last3=de Silva |first3=Shanaka |date=2024-01-18 |title=Constraining magma storage conditions of the Toba magmatic system: a plagioclase and amphibole perspective |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00410-023-02089-7 |journal=Contributions to Mineralogy and Petrology |volume=179 |issue=2 |doi=10.1007/s00410-023-02089-7 |issn=0010-7999}}</ref> The implied prevailing wind from the ash distribution is consistent with the eruption occurred during summer.<ref name=":11" /> The eruption commenced with small and limited air-fall and was directly followed by the main phase of ignimbrite flows.<ref name=":10" /> The ignimbrite phase is characterized by low eruption fountain,<ref>{{Cite journal |last=CHESNER |first=C |date=1998-03-01 |title=Petrogenesis of the Toba Tuffs, Sumatra, Indonesia |journal=Journal of Petrology |volume=39 |issue=3 |pages=397–438 |doi=10.1093/petrology/39.3.397 |issn=1460-2415|doi-access=free }}</ref> but co-ignimbrite column developed on top of pyroclastic flows reached a height of {{cvt|32|km}}.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Woods |first1=Andrew W. |last2=Wohletz |first2=Kenneth |date=1991 |title=Dimensions and dynamics of co-ignimbrite eruption columns |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/350225a0 |journal=Nature |language=en |volume=350 |issue=6315 |pages=225–227 |doi=10.1038/350225a0 |issn=1476-4687}}</ref> The entire eruption was likely continuous without major break and may have only lasted 9 to 14 days.<ref name="Toba1978" /> [[Petrology|Petrological]] constrains on sulfur emission yielded a wide range from {{Val|1e13}} to {{Val|1e15|u=g}}, depending on the existence of separate sulfur gas in the Toba magma chamber.<ref name=":9">{{Cite journal |last1=Chesner |first1=Craig A. |last2=Luhr |first2=James F. |date=2010-11-30 |title=A melt inclusion study of the Toba Tuffs, Sumatra, Indonesia |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0377027310001824 |journal=Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research |language=en |volume=197 |issue=1–4 |pages=259–278 |bibcode=2010JVGR..197..259C |doi=10.1016/j.jvolgeores.2010.06.001}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |last1=Scaillet |first1=Bruno |title=Petrological and volcanological constraints on volcanic sulfur emissions to the atmosphere |date=2003 |work=Volcanism and the Earth's Atmosphere |pages=11–40 |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/139gm02 |access-date=2024-04-25 |place=Washington, D. C. |publisher=American Geophysical Union |last2=Luhr |first2=James F. |last3=Carroll |first3=Michael R.|series=Geophysical Monograph Series |volume=139 |doi=10.1029/139gm02 |isbn=0-87590-998-1 }}</ref> Ice core records estimate the sulfur emission on the order of {{Val|1e14|u=g}}.<ref name=":15" /> | The most recent two high-precision [[argon–argon dating|argon–argon datings]] dated the eruption to 73,880 ± 320<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Storey |first1=Michael |last2=Roberts |first2=Richard G. |last3=Saidin |first3=Mokhtar |date=2012-11-13 |title=Astronomically calibrated 40 Ar/ 39 Ar age for the Toba supereruption and global synchronization of late Quaternary records |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |language=en |volume=109 |issue=46 |pages=18684–18688 |bibcode=2012PNAS..10918684S |doi=10.1073/pnas.1208178109 |issn=0027-8424 |pmc=3503200 |pmid=23112159 |doi-access=free}}</ref> and 73,700 ± 300 years ago.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Channell |first1=J.E.T. |last2=Hodell |first2=D.A. |date=2017 |title=High-precision 40Ar/39Ar dating of Pleistocene tuffs and temporal anchoring of the Matuyama-Brunhes boundary |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.quageo.2017.08.002 |journal=Quaternary Geochronology |volume=42 |pages=56–59 |doi=10.1016/j.quageo.2017.08.002 |issn=1871-1014}}</ref> Five distinct [[Magma chamber|magma bodies]] were activated within a few centuries before the eruption.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Pearce |first1=Nicholas J.G. |last2=Westgate |first2=John A. |last3=Gualda |first3=Guilherme A.R. |last4=Gatti |first4=Emma |last5=Muhammad |first5=Ros F. |date=2019-10-14 |title=Tephra glass chemistry provides storage and discharge details of five magma reservoirs which fed the 75 ka Youngest Toba Tuff eruption, northern Sumatra |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/jqs.3149 |journal=Journal of Quaternary Science |volume=35 |issue=1–2 |pages=256–271 |doi=10.1002/jqs.3149 |issn=0267-8179|hdl=2160/dba3b012-8369-4dbb-8a89-1102f11e92c3 |hdl-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Lubbers |first1=Jordan |last2=Kent |first2=Adam J. R. |last3=de Silva |first3=Shanaka |date=2024-01-18 |title=Constraining magma storage conditions of the Toba magmatic system: a plagioclase and amphibole perspective |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00410-023-02089-7 |journal=Contributions to Mineralogy and Petrology |volume=179 |issue=2 |doi=10.1007/s00410-023-02089-7 |issn=0010-7999}}</ref> The implied prevailing wind from the ash distribution is consistent with the eruption occurred during summer.<ref name=":11" /> The eruption commenced with small and limited air-fall and was directly followed by the main phase of ignimbrite flows.<ref name=":10" /> The ignimbrite phase is characterized by low eruption fountain,<ref>{{Cite journal |last=CHESNER |first=C |date=1998-03-01 |title=Petrogenesis of the Toba Tuffs, Sumatra, Indonesia |journal=Journal of Petrology |volume=39 |issue=3 |pages=397–438 |doi=10.1093/petrology/39.3.397 |issn=1460-2415|doi-access=free }}</ref> but co-ignimbrite column developed on top of pyroclastic flows reached a height of {{cvt|32|km}}.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Woods |first1=Andrew W. |last2=Wohletz |first2=Kenneth |date=1991 |title=Dimensions and dynamics of co-ignimbrite eruption columns |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/350225a0 |journal=Nature |language=en |volume=350 |issue=6315 |pages=225–227 |doi=10.1038/350225a0 |issn=1476-4687}}</ref> The entire eruption was likely continuous without major break and may have only lasted 9 to 14 days.<ref name="Toba1978" /> [[Petrology|Petrological]] constrains on sulfur emission yielded a wide range from {{Val|1e13}} to {{Val|1e15|u=g}}, depending on the existence of separate sulfur gas in the Toba magma chamber.<ref name=":9">{{Cite journal |last1=Chesner |first1=Craig A. |last2=Luhr |first2=James F. |date=2010-11-30 |title=A melt inclusion study of the Toba Tuffs, Sumatra, Indonesia |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0377027310001824 |journal=Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research |language=en |volume=197 |issue=1–4 |pages=259–278 |bibcode=2010JVGR..197..259C |doi=10.1016/j.jvolgeores.2010.06.001}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |last1=Scaillet |first1=Bruno |title=Petrological and volcanological constraints on volcanic sulfur emissions to the atmosphere |date=2003 |work=Volcanism and the Earth's Atmosphere |pages=11–40 |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/139gm02 |access-date=2024-04-25 |place=Washington, D. C. |publisher=American Geophysical Union |last2=Luhr |first2=James F. |last3=Carroll |first3=Michael R.|series=Geophysical Monograph Series |volume=139 |doi=10.1029/139gm02 |isbn=0-87590-998-1 }}</ref> Ice core records estimate the sulfur emission on the order of {{Val|1e14|u=g}}.<ref name=":15" /> |
| === Climate events around the time of eruption === | === Climate events around the time of eruption === |
Okumaya devam et...